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\title{The KKT-Algorithm for Minimum Spanning Trees}
\author{Wolfgang Mulzer}

\begin{document}
\maketitle

\section{The Problem}

We are given a connected undirected graph
$G = (V,E)$ with $n$ vertices and $m$ edges, 
together with a weight function $w: E \rightarrow \R$
on the edges. Without loss of generality, we assume that
all weights are pairwise distinct.
The goal is to compute a \emph{minimum spanning tree}
of $G$, i.e., a set $F \subseteq E$ of edges such
that the subgraph $(V, F)$ is acyclic and connected, 
and such that the total edge weight $\sum_{e \in F} w(e)$
is minimum among all acyclic connected subgraphs of $G$.
We denote $F$ by $\mst(G)$. The following fact is well known.

\begin{fact}
  Let $G = (V,E)$ be a connected undirected weighted graph
  such that all edge weights are pairwise distinct.
  Then $\mst(G)$ is uniquely determined.\qed
\end{fact}

The minimum spanning tree problem has been studied intensively
over the last decades, and many different algorithms are known.
The first algorithm is due to \boruvka. It takes $O(\min\{n^2, m \log n\})$
steps and is described in more detail below.
Two further classic algorithms are Kruskal's algorithm, a greedy
algorithm that runs in $O(m \log n)$ time, and the algorithm
of Prim/Jarnik/Dijkstra, that requires $O(m + n \log n)$ steps
if implemented with an appropriate heap structure, such
as Fibonacci heaps.
These algorithms have been improved significantly,
and the currently fastest general deterministic algorithm is due to
Chazelle. It needs $O(m \alpha(m,n))$ time, where
$\alpha(m,n)$ is the slow-growing inverse Ackermann function.

If we are allowed to use randomness, there is a 
conceptually simple linear-time algorithm due to Karger,
Klein, and Tarjan. We will describe this algorithm here.

\section{Ingredients}

We begin by describing some of the ingredients
that the KKT algorithm borrows from previous 
MST-algorithms.

\subsection{\boruvka's Algorithm}

\boruvka's algorithm consists of an iterative application
of \emph{\boruvka\ phases}. In a \boruvka\ phase,
we are given a graph $G_1 = (V_1, E_1)$, and we obtain from
it a smaller graph $G_2 = (V_2, E_2)$ by \emph{contracting} 
edges that are guaranteed to be in $\mst(G_1)$.
This is done as follows:
for each vertex $v \in V_1$, we select the incident edge
of minimum weight.
Let $F$ be the resulting edges.
The graph $G_2$ contains a node 
for each connected component of $(V_1, F)$. For two
distinct nodes $a, b \in V_2$, the graph $G_2$ has an
edge $e$
between $a, b \in V_2$ if and only if $G_1$ has an
edge between a node in component $a$ and a node
in component $b$. The weight of $e$ is chosen as the
minimum of all edge weights between $a$ and $b$.
The \emph{corresponding edge} of $e$ in $G_1$ is the
edge of minimum weight between components $a$ and $b$
in $G_1$.
A \boruvka\ phase has the following properties:

\begin{lemma}\label{lem:boruvka_phase}
Let $G_1 = (V_1, E_1)$ be connected, undirected, and weighted.
Apply a \boruvka\ phase to $G_1$, and let $G_2 = (V_2, E_2)$ be 
the result. Denote the set of contracted edges by $F$. 
Then $G_2$ has at most half as many vertices
as $G_1$, i.e., $|V_2| \leq |V_1|/2$. Furthermore, 
the MST of $G_1$ is obtained by taking $F$ and adding 
the corresponding edges of $\mst(G_2)$ in $G_1$. 
The \boruvka\ phase can be implemented in $O(|E_1|)$ steps.
\end{lemma}

\begin{proof}
Exercise.
\end{proof}

\boruvka's algorithm starts with $G_1 = G$ and applies
\boruvka\ phases until there is only one node left.
Let $G_1, \dots, G_k$ be the resulting sequence of
graphs, and let $F_i$ be the edges that were contracted
in $G_i$ during the $i$th \boruvka\ phase. Let $\widehat{F}_i$
be the corresponding edges in $G$. The algorithm returns 
$\bigcup_{i=1}^{k-1} \widehat{F}_i$.

\begin{theorem}
  \boruvka's algorithm correctly computes $\mst(G)$. 
  It can be implemented in $O(\min(n^2, m \log n))$ steps.
\end{theorem}

\begin{proof}
  This follows from Lemma~\ref{lem:boruvka_phase}.
  The details are left as an exercise.
\end{proof}

\subsection{MST Verification}

The second ingredient is an algorithm
for checking whether an acyclic
subgraph of $G$ is an MST. This algorithm
also provides a witness of non-minimality.
The following definition makes this notion of
witness precise.
Let $A \subseteq E$ be acyclic. An
edge $e \in E$ is called \emph{$A$-light} if
either (i) $A \cup \{e\}$ is acyclic; or
(ii) the unique cycle in $A \cup \{e\}$
contains an edge of weight larger than
$w(e)$. Note that case
(i) also applies if $e \in A$.
The following lemma shows the usefulness of our
definition.

\begin{lemma}\label{lem:a_light}
  Let $G = (V, E)$ be undirected and weighted,
  and let $A \subseteq E$ be such that
  $(V, A)$ is an acyclic graph. 
  Then $\mst(G)$ is contained in the set of $A$-light edges 
  in $E$. Furthermore, $A$ is the MST of
  $G$ if and only if there are no $A$-light edges outside
  of $A$. 
\end{lemma}

\begin{proof}
  Exercise.
\end{proof}

The following theorem is due to Dixon, Rauch, and Tarjan. 
A simpler algorithm was later presented by King.

\begin{theorem}\label{thm:mst_verify}
  Let $G = (V,E)$ be undirected, connected, and weighted, 
  and let $A \subseteq E$ be acyclic.
  We can find all $A$-light edges in $G$ in total 
  deterministic time $O(m+n)$.\qed
\end{theorem}

\section{Algorithm}

The problem with \boruvka's algorithm is that
although each phase at least halves the number of
vertices, it does not necessarily reduce the number
of edges significantly. Thus, it may be that some
edges are considered during a logarithmic number
of phases.
To avoid this, we use random sampling 
in order to reduce the number of edges. 
We compute a minimum spanning \emph{forest} $F$ of the
resulting graph. The random sampling may 
discard edges that belong to the MST.
To correct for these errors, we determine the
$F$-light edges $L$ and recompute the MST with
respect to $L$. The hope is that $L$ will be small.
Details follow.


The algorithm gets an undirected and weighted
graph $G = (V, E)$ as input. We do not necessarily
require that $G$ is connected. The goal is to compute
a \emph{minimum spanning forest} for $G$, i.e.,
a minimum spanning tree for each connected component
of $G$. We denote it by $\msf(G)$.

Initially, the algorithm performs three
\boruvka\ phases on $G$. This reduces
the number of edges at least by a factor of
$8$.
Let $G_1 = (V_1, E_1)$ be the resulting graph,
and $F_1 \subseteq E$ the corresponding set 
of contracted edges.
We pick a random subset $R \subseteq E_1$ with
$|R| = |E_1|/2$, and we recursively compute 
$\msf(V_1, R)$.  Let $F_2$ be the result.
We use Theorem~\ref{thm:mst_verify} to find the
set $L \subseteq E_1$ of $F_2$-light edges in $G_1$. 
We recurse again to compute $\msf(V_1, L)$. 
Let $F_3$ be the corresponding edges in $G$.
We return $F_1 \cup F_3$ as the MSF of $G$.

\section{Analysis}

The correctness of the algorithm follows 
from Lemmas~\ref{lem:boruvka_phase} and \ref{lem:a_light}.
Let $T(m,n)$ denote the expected running time on a graph
with $m$ edges and $n$ vertices.
By Lemma~\ref{lem:boruvka_phase}, the initial three
\boruvka\ phases take $O(n+m)$ steps.
The time to find the first random sample also
requires $O(n+m)$ time.
Since the three  \boruvka\ phases reduce the number
of vertices at least by a factor of $8$, and since 
the sample contains at most $m/2$ edges, 
the first recursive call needs $T(n/8, m/2)$ steps.
By Theorem~\ref{thm:mst_verify},
it takes $O(n+m)$ time to find the $F_2$-light edges.
Finally, the second recursive call takes time $T(n/8, |L|)$.
This gives the following recursion
for $T$:
\[
  T(n, m) = O(n+m) + T(n/8, m/2) + T(n/8, |L|).
\]
The following lemma bounds the expected size of $L$.

\begin{lemma}\label{lem:sampling}
Let $G = (V,E)$ be undirected and weighted, and 
$R \subseteq V$ random with
$|R| = |V|/2$. Let $F = \msf(V,R)$.
The expected number of $F$-light edges in $G$ is
at most $2|V|$.
\end{lemma}

Using Lemma~\ref{lem:sampling}, we can use induction and
linearity of expectation to show that $T(n,m) = O(n+m)$.
It remains to prove Lemma~\ref{lem:sampling}. The following
proof is due to Timothy M.~Chan.

\begin{proof}[Proof of Lemma~\ref{lem:sampling}]
  Using linearity of expectation, we have
  \[
   \EX[\text{\# of $F$-light edges}] = \sum_{e \in E} \Pr[\text{e is $F$-light}]. 
  \]
 Observing that $e \in E$ is $F$-light if and only if
 $e \in \msf(V, R \cup \{e\})$ (Exercise) and distinguishing the
 choices for $R$, this becomes
  \[
   \EX[\text{\# of $F$-light edges}]  
   = \sum_{e \in E} \sum_{\substack{S \subseteq E\\ |S|=|E|/2}} \Pr[R = S] [e \in \msf(S \cup \{e\})].
  \]
  Here, the notation $[P]$ gives $1$ if the condition $P$ is true and $0$ if the condition $P$ is false.
  Now we change the order of summation and distinguish whether $e \in S$. We get
 \begin{multline*}
   \EX[\text{\# of $F$-light edges}]  
       = \sum_{\substack{S \subseteq E\\ |S|=|E|/2}}\sum_{e \in S} \Pr[R = S] [e \in \msf(S \cup \{e\})] +\\
  \sum_{\substack{S \subseteq E\\ |S|=|E|/2}}\sum_{e \in E \setminus S} \Pr[R = S] [e \in \msf(S \cup \{e\})].
 \end{multline*}

We bound the sums individually. For the first sum, we have
\begin{align*}
\sum_{\substack{S \subseteq E\\ |S|=|E|/2}}\sum_{e \in S} \Pr[R = S] [e \in \msf(S \cup \{e\})] &=
\sum_{\substack{S \subseteq E\\ |S|=|E|/2}}\Pr[R = S] \sum_{e \in S}  [e \in \msf(S \cup \{e\})]\\
&= \sum_{\substack{S \subseteq E\\ |S|=|E|/2}}\Pr[R = S]  |\msf(S)|\\
&\leq |V|-1,
\end{align*}
since $\msf(S)$ has at most $|V|-1$ edges, for any choice of $S \subseteq E$.

We rewrite the second sum as
\[
\sum_{\substack{S \subseteq E\\ |S|=\frac{|E|}{2}}}\sum_{e \in E \setminus S} \Pr[R = S] [e \in \msf(S \cup \{e\})] =
\frac{|E|}{2} \sum_{\substack{S \subseteq E\\ |S|=\frac{|E|}{2}}}\sum_{e \in E
  \setminus S} \frac{2\Pr[R = S]}{|E|} 
[e \in \msf(S \cup \{e\})].
\]
This sum can be interpreted as follows: 
pick a random subset $S \subseteq E$ with $|S| = |E|/2$, and then
pick a random edge $e \in E \setminus S$. 
What is the probability that $e \in \msf(S \cup \{e\})$?
An equivalent formulation is that we first
pick a random subset $S' \subseteq E$ with $|S'| = |E|/2 +1$, and then
we pick a random edge $e' \in S'$. Now we want 
the probability that $e' \in \msf(S')$.
This second formulation gives an easy estimate for the 
sum: since $\msf(S')$ has at most $|V|-1$ edges, it is at most 
\[
\frac{|V|-1}{|S'|} \leq \frac{|V|}{|E|/2}.
\]
Hence,
\[
  \EX[\text{\# of $F$-light edges}] \leq |V|-1 + \frac{|E|}{2} \cdot \frac{|V|}{|E|/2} < 2|V|,
\]
as claimed.
\end{proof}
\end{document}
